Malleability ọla kọpa. Njirimara nke ọla kọpa

Malleability akpọ susceptibility nke ọla na alloys maka ibe ya bụrụ na ndị ọzọ na ụdị nsogbu ọgwụgwọ. Nke a pụrụ ịbụ a ịbịaru, zọ, inyefe ma ọ bụ na ịpị. ọla kọpa malleability Ọ ji bụghị naanị deformation eguzogide, kamakwa moldability. Gịnị bụ plasticity? Ikike a nke metal ịgbanwe ya contours nrụgide na-enweghị na-agbasa. Achọkarị ịna ọla-agụnye ọla, na ígwè, duralumin na ndị ọzọ na ụfọdụ ọla kọpa, magnesium, nickel, aluminum alloys. Na ha nwere a elu larịị nke plasticity na-achọkwa na a ala iguzogide deformation.

ọla kọpa

Na-akpali mmasị, ya anya ka ihe e ji mara nke ọla kọpa? Ọ maara na ọ bụ ihe mmewere nke otu 11 4 oge chemical ọcha D. I. Mendeleeva. Ya atọm nwere 29 ụlọ na a na-denoted site akara Cu. N'ezie, nke a bụ a Transitional metal Plastic pink na ọlaedo aja aja. Site n'ụzọ, ọ nwere a pink agba, ma ọ bụrụ na oxide film anọghị. Site n'oge ochie, nke a mmewere na-eji ndị mmadụ.

akụkọ

Otu n'ime ihe mbụ ọla ka ndị mmadụ malitere ifịk ifịk-eji ya aku na uba, bụ ọla kọpa. N'ezie, ọ na-bụ maka nnata si ore na nwere a ala agbaze ebe. Ọ dịwo mara ụmụ mmadụ Seven ọla, nke na-agụnye ọla kọpa. Na ọdịdị, a mmewere bụ karịa ọlaọcha, ọlaedo ma ọ bụ ígwè. Ancient ihe ọla kọpa slag, bụ a Agba ya n'oké nke ores. Ha chọpụtara n'oge gwupụtara nke mmezi Çatalhöyük. Ọ maara na na Ọla kọpa Age ndị n'ọtụtụ ebe ọla kọpa ihe. ọ na-agbaso a nkume ụwa akụkọ ihe mere eme.

S. A. Semonov na ọrụ ekenịmde ibuo ọmụmụ hụrụ na ọla kọpa ngwaọrụ tụnyere nkume uru n'ọtụtụ ụzọ. Ha nwere a elu ọsọ planing, mkpọpu ala, ịcha na sawing osisi. A ọgwụgwọ nke ọkpụkpụ ọla kọpa mma dịruru dị ka ukwuu, na nke nkume. Ma ọla kọpa na-ewere a adụ metal.

Ọtụtụ mgbe, n'oge ochie jikwa ya mee ihe kama nke ọla kọpa alloy na tin - ọla. Ọ dị mkpa ka imewe nke ngwá agha na ihe ndị ọzọ. Ya mere, iji dochie ọla kọpa Age bịara ọla. Ọla maka oge mbụ natara na Middle East maka afọ 3000 BC. e.: ndị mmadụ dị ka ike na magburu onwe ductility ọla kọpa. Si dapụtara ọla wee oké ngwá ọrụ na ịchụ nta, efere, decorations. All n'ime ihe ndị a na-hụrụ na mgbe ochie gwupụtara. Ọzọkwa, oze Age nyere ụzọ ígwè.

Olee otú iji nweta ọla kọpa nwere ike n'oge ochie? Ná mmalite, ọ na-adịghị amịpụtara si a sulfide na malachite ore. N'ezie, na nke a, na-arụ mbido firing bụ adịghị mkpa. N'ihi na nke a ore na coal ngwakọta e debere na a ite ájá. The arịa e debere na a na-emighị emi olulu na ngwakọta na-amụnyewo. Next amalite na-emepụta carbon monoxide, nke so kpata mweghachi nke malachite free ọla kọpa.

Ọ maara na na Cyprus-atọ na narị afọ iri BC e wuru ọla kọpa mines, na nke ya e rụrụ n'oké.

On n'ala ndị Russia ma agbata obi na-ekwu, ọla kọpa mines pụta n'elu abụọ millennia BC. e. Ha mkpọmkpọ ebe na-na Urals, na Ukraine, na Caucasus, na Altai, na anya Siberia.

Industrial agbaze ọla kọpa ahụ tinye n'ọrụ na nke iri na atọ na narị afọ. Na na iri na ise egbe ala Yard e guzobere Moscow. Ọ bụ n'ebe na ọla nkedo egbe nke dị iche iche calibers. Ịrịba ego nke ọla kọpa ahụ nọrọ na n'ichepụta nke hey. Na 1586, ọla nọ na-ajụ Tsar egbe ala, na 1735 - na Tsar Bell na 1782. The oze ịnyịnya e kere. Na 752, nna ukwu emepụta ebube Big Buddha oyiyi na temple nke Todai-JI Temple. Ke ofụri ofụri, na ndepụta nke ọrụ nkà foundry bụ adịghị agwụ agwụ.

Na iri na asatọ na narị afọ ndị mmadụ chọpụtara na ọkụ eletrik. Ọ bụ mgbe ahụ nnukwu ichekwa ọla kọpa malitere ịhapụ maka imewe nke waya yiri ngwaahịa. Na nke iri abụọ na narị afọ, ndị wires mụtara mee aluminum, ma ọla kọpa na ọkụ eletrik ka nwere oké mkpa.

Malite aha

Na ị maara ihe Cuprum - bụ Latin aha nke ọla kọpa, ewepụtara aha nke agwaetiti Saịprọs? Site n'ụzọ, na Strabo ọla kọpa imezi halkosom - n'obodo Halkida on Euboea ikpe nke malite aha. Kasị aha Grik ọla kọpa na ọla akpọkwa emeela ebe ọ bụ site na okwu a. Ha na-ọtụtụ-eji blacksmithing, n'etiti ibe ya bụrụ na nēfe ngwaahịa. Mgbe ụfọdụ, kwuru na dị ka ọla kọpa AES, nke pụtara ore ma ọ bụ nke m.

The Slavic okwu "ọla kọpa" na-adịghị akpọ etymology. Ikekwe ọ bụ agadi. Ma, ọ na-ukwuu mgbe dị na kasị ochie edemede ncheta nke Russia. V. I. Abaev chere na okwu a na-abịa site aha mba nke Media. Ọla kọpa Alchemists akpọ "Venus". Na mbụ ụfọdụ, ọ na-akpọ "Mars".

Ebee bụ ọla kọpa na ọdịdị?

The jikọrọ ọnụ esetịpụ (4,7-5,5) x 10 ^-3% ọla kọpa (site ibu). Osimiri na mmiri na oké osimiri mmiri ọ bụ ọtụtụ ihe na-erughị: 10 ^-7% na 3 x 10 ^-7% (site arọ) karị.

Na ọdịdị, na-ukwuu mgbe ọla kọpa ogige. The ụlọ ọrụ na-eji CuFeS ₂ chalcopyrite akpọ ọla kọpa pyrites, bornite Cu ₅ FeS _4, chalcocite Cu ₂ S. N'out oge ndị mmadụ chọta na ndị ọzọ na ọla kọpa minerals cuprite Cu ₂ O, Cu azurite ₃ (CO _{3) 2} (OH) _2, Cu malachite ₂ CO ₃ (OH) ₂ na covellite CuS. Ọtụtụ mgbe, onye arọ nke ọla kọpa ụyọkọ ruo 400 tọn. Ọla kọpa sulfides ii tumadi na-ajụ-okpomọkụ hydrothermal veins. Ọtụtụ mgbe sedimentary nkume nwere ike ịhụ ọla kọpa ego - shale na ọla kọpa sandstones. The kasị mara ego nọ Trans-Baikal Territory Udokan Zhezkazgan na Kazakhstan, Mansfeld na Germany na nectariferous belt nke Central Africa. Ọzọ ọgaranya ọla kọpa nkwụnye ego dị na Chile (Kolyausi na Escondida) na USA (Morensi).

Kasị nke ọla kọpa ore mined site emeghe usoro. O nwere site 0.3 na 1.0% ọla kọpa.

nkịtị Njirimara

Ọtụtụ na-agụ akwụkwọ nwere mmasị na-nkọwa nke ọla kọpa. Nke a plastic pink na ọlaedo metal. On ya elu ikuku ntabi kpuchie oxide film, nke na-enye ya ụdị ufiop red-acha odo odo hue. -Akpali mmasị, mkpa film nke ọla kọpa-acha anụnụ anụnụ-green agba.

Osmium, cesium, ọla kọpa na ọlaedo na agba nwere otu na agba, iche na ndị ọzọ na isi awọ ma ọ bụ ọlaọcha metal. Nke a na agba ụda na-egosi na ọnụnọ nke elektrọn ikwu n'ụzọ n'etiti anọ ọkara efu na jupụtara a atọ atọm orbitals. N'etiti ha na e nwere ụfọdụ ume dị iche kwekọrọ ekwekọ na wavelength nke agba oroma. Otu usoro bụ maka na kpọmkwem agba nke gold.

Ihe ọzọ bụ na ịtụnanya e ji mara nke ọla kọpa? Nke a metal werekwa a ihu na-eche nanị cubic lattice, a ohere otu Fm3m, a = 0,36150 nm, Z = 4.

A ọzọ a ma ama na ọla kọpa nke elu eletriki na thermal conductivity. Dị ka nke ugbu a nketa ọ bụ n'etiti ndị ọla ke n'ọnọdụ nke abụọ. Itunanya bu na, ibu ọla kọpa nwere a okpomọkụ ọnụọgụ nke ndị na-eguzogide na a dịgasị okpomọkụ nso bụ fọrọ nke nta onwe ha nke ya egosi. Ọla kọpa na-akpọ diamagnetic.

Ọla kọpa alloys dịgasị iche iche. People mụtara ikpokọta na zinc na ọla, nickel ọlaọcha na nickel na a ụzọ babbitt, ọla kọpa na gbamgbam na ndị ọzọ ọla.

ọla kọpa isotopes

Ọla kọpa nwere ihe abụọ anụ isotopes - ⁶³ Cu na ⁶⁵ Cu, nke nwere a njupụta nke 69,1 na 30,9 atọm percent karị. N'ozuzu, e nwere ihe karịrị abụọ na iri na abuo isotopes enweghị kwụsie ike. Ndị fọdụrụ n'ezinụlọ-biri isotope bụ ⁶⁷ Cu na a ọkara ndụ nke 62 awa.

Olee otú iji nweta ọla kọpa?

Production nke ọla kọpa bụ a-akpali nnọọ mmasị usoro. Nke a metal na-kwadebere si ọla kọpa ores na mineral. Ihe bụ isi ụzọ nke nkwadebe bụ ọla kọpa hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, na electrolysis.

Tụlee pyrometallurgical usoro. Dị ka usoro, ọla kọpa si sulfidic ores, dị ka chalcopyrite, CuFeS _2. The chalcopyrite feedstock bụ 0,5-2,0% Cu. Akpa, mbụ ore bụ flotation. Mgbe ahụ, oxidizing amịkpọ ya na okpomọkụ nke 1400 degrees. Ọzọkwa nsure ọkụ uche na-aga n'ime n'oké na matte. N'ihi na nkịtị ígwè oxide na gbazee na kwukwara silica.

Ihe silicate dị ka slag floats na na-iche. Mgbe ala-anọgide matte - sulphides alloy Cu ₂ S na FeS. Ọzọkwa, ọ na-gbazee site na usoro nke Henry Bessemer. Iji mezuo nke a, na Ntụgharị na-wụsara wụrụ awụ matte. Mgbe ahụ na akpa e wepụchara na oxygen. A ígwè sulfide, nke e oxidized na oxide iji silica wepụrụ si usoro dị ka a silicate. Ọla kọpa sulfide na-oxidized na ọla kọpa oxide bụ n'ụzọ zuru ezu, ma mgbe ahụ na-ebelata ka dara ọla kọpa.

The ọnya ọla kọpa enwetara nwere 90,95% nke metal. Ọzọ, ọ na-doro electrolytic ihicha. -Akpali mmasị, electrolyte bụ acidic ngwọta nke ọla kọpa sulfate.

Ọ na-kpụrụ na cathode electrolytic ọla kọpa nke nwere a elu ugboro nke banyere 99,99%. Ihe mere nke ọla kọpa na-emepụta dị nnọọ iche: wires, ọkụ na ngwá, alloys.

Hydrometallurgical usoro bụ dịtụ iche. E ji ọla kọpa mee minerals gbara alụkwaghịm etisasịwo na igirigi ibu sulphuric acid ma ọ bụ ammoniacal ngwọta. Site na njikere mmiri chụpụ ọla kọpa na ígwè metal.

Chemical Njirimara nke ọla kọpa

Na ogige nke ọla kọpa na-egosi abụọ ọxịdashọn ekwu +1 na +2. Nke mbụ n'ime ha nēche na-disproportionate na bụ anụ naanị ke unyi anaghị agbasa na ogige ma ọ bụ okụre. Itunanya bu na, ọla kọpa colorless compound.

The ọxịdashọn steeti +2 ọzọ mụ. Na ọ na-enye nnu acha anụnụ anụnụ na cyan. Na ọhụrụ ọnọdụ nwere ike kwadebere ogige na a ogo ọxịdashọn nke +3 na +5 ọbụna. Nke ikpeazụ a na-ọtụtụ ndị na-hụrụ na salts kupraboranovogo anion nwetara na 1994.

Pure ọla kọpa na ikuku na-agbanwebeghị. Nke a na-adịghị ike na mbenata gị n'ụlọnga na-adịghị eme na itughari hydrochloric acid na mmiri. Oxidized lekwasị nitric na igirigi ibu sulphuric asịd, halogens, oxygen, na "aqua regia", oxides nke na-abụghị ọla, chalcogens. Mgbe ewe iwe, ọ mkpatụ na hydrogen halides.

Ọ bụrụ na ikuku bụ ooh, ọla kọpa na-oxidized, akpụ a isi ọla kọpa carbonate (II). Ọ mkpatụ n'ụzọ zuru okè na-ekpo ọkụ na oyi na-atụ jupụta na igirigi ibu sulphuric acid, anhydrous ekpo ọkụ na igirigi ibu sulphuric acid.

Na itughari hydrochloric acid ọla kọpa mkpatụ na ọnụnọ nke oxygen.

Gbasara nyocha onwu ọla kọpa

Onye ọ bụla maara na nke a onwu. Ọla kọpa na ngwọta dị mfe ịchọpụta. Iji mee nke a, a platinum waya moisten ule ngwọta, wee tinye ya a Bunsen burner ire ọkụ. Ọ bụrụ na ọla kọpa bụ ugbu a na ihe ngwọta, bụ ire ọkụ ga-acha na-acha akwụkwọ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ na-acha anụnụ anụnụ. Ị ga-amarakwa na:

• A, ego nke ọla kọpa na weakly acidic ngwọta tụrụ site hydrogen sulfide: ọ bụ mbuaha na umi. A, ọla kọpa sulfide precipitates.
• Na ndị ngwọta ebe dịghị iwetara ion, ọla kọpa chọpụta complexometric, potentiometric ma ọ bụ potentiometrically.
• Obere ọla kọpa na ihe ngwọta na-tụrụ spektral na kinetic ụzọ.

The ojiji nke ọla kọpa

Kwere ọmụmụ Ọla kọpa bụ nnọọ ụtọ ihe. N'ihi ya, ifịk metal nwere ala resistivity. Site na nke a àgwà nke ọla kọpa-eji maka mmepụta nke eletriki ike na ndị ọzọ na Gịnị, wires na ndị ọzọ na-eduzi. Ọla kọpa waya eji na windings nke ike nkesa na electric draịva. Ka ịmepụta hotara na mbụ metal họrọ isiokwu nnọọ ọcha, ebe ọ bụ na adịghị n'otu ntabi belata eletriki conductivity. Ọ bụrụ na ọla kọpa bụ ugbu a na 0,02% nke níle Önwa, ya eletriki conductivity ka ibelata site 10%.

Ọzọ bara uru mma bụ ihe ndị magburu onwe thermal conductivity ọla kọpa. N'ihi na nke a onwunwe ọ na-eji na a dịgasị iche iche nke okpomọkụ exchangers, okpomọkụ ọjà, teplootvodnyh na ngwaọrụ na kọmputa Coolers.

Na ebe a na-na-ekweghị ekwe nke ọla kọpa mee? Ọ maara na enweghị nkebi ọla kọpa tube nke okirikiri cross ngalaba nwere magburu onwe n'ibu ike. Ha na-ọma idi n'ibu njikwa na-eji akpali mmiri na ikuku ndi. A, ha nwere ike dị na esịtidem gas ọkọnọ na mmiri usoro, kpo oku usoro. Ha na-ọtụtụ-eji na friji nkeji na ntụ oyi usoro.

Magburu onwe ekweghị ekwe nke ọla kọpa na-mara na ọtụtụ mba. N'ihi ya, na France, ndị UK na Australia, ọla kọpa ọkpọkọ eji maka gas ọkọnọ nke ụlọ ke Sweden - maka kpo oku, na US, UK na Hong Kong - bụ isi ihe maka mmiri.

Na Russia, na mmepụta nke mmiri na gas ọla kọpa akpa normalized ọkọlọtọ GOST R 52318-2005 na Federal Usoro nke Practice SP 40-108-2004 achịkwakwa ha were. Ọkpọkọ mere nke ọla kọpa na ya alloys na-ọtụtụ-eji ike engineering na shipbuilding ịkwaga uzu ọkụ na mmiri mmiri.

Ị maara na ọla kọpa alloys na-eji a dịgasị iche iche nke ubi nke technology? N'ime ndị a, ndị kasị ama na-ahụta ka ọla na ọla. Ma alloys agụnye nnukwu ezinụlọ nke ihe, nke, e wezụga zinc na tin, nwere ike na-agụnye bismuth, nickel na ndị ọzọ na ọla. Ka ihe atụ, gunmetal eji ruo mgbe nke iri na itoolu na narị afọ maka imewe nke ogbunigwe shells, esịnede nke ọla kọpa, gbamgbam na zinc. Ya Nwa-iche dabere na ebe na oge nke rụpụta egbe.

Onye ọ bụla maara ihe ndị magburu onwe processability na elu ductility ọla kọpa. N'ihi ndị a Njirimara, ịrịba ego nke ọla doo n'ihi na mmepụta nke aka uwe maka na ogwe aka na ogbunigwe mgbọ. Ọ bụ ihe kwesịrị ịrịba ama na akụkụ na-mere nke ọla kọpa-sịlịkọn alloys, zinc, tin, aluminum na ngwaọrụ ndị ọzọ. Ọla kọpa alloys na-ji nnukwu ike na thermal nhazi idowe ha n'ibu Njirimara. Ha na-eyi ndị na-eguzogide kpebisiri ike nanị site na chemical mejupụtara na ihe ndị ọ na Ọdịdị. Ọ ga-kwuru na a na-achị adịghị emetụta beryllium ọla kọpa na ụfọdụ aluminum bronzes.

Ọla kọpa alloys nwere a modulus nke ekwedo obere karịa nke ígwè. Ha isi uru nwere ike a na-akpọ a obere esemokwu ọnụọgụ, jikọtara ọtụtụ alloys na elu ductility, magburu onwe ya eletriki conductivity na magburu onwe corrosion na-eguzogide na a corrosive gburugburu ebe obibi. Dị ka a na-achị, ọ bụ ọla kọpa, aluminum na ọla kọpa-nickel alloys. Na mberede, ha hụrụ ha ngwa ụzọ abụọ nke eji.

Fọrọ nke nta niile ọla kọpa alloys nwere otu ịdị ukwuu nke esemokwu ọnụọgụ. Otú ọ dị, na-eyi ndị na-eguzogide na n'ibu Njirimara, omume na corrosive gburugburu bụ kpọmkwem dabere na alloy mejupụtara. The ductility nke ọla kọpa e ji mee ihe otu-adọ alloys, na ike - na abụọ n'ụzọ. Melchior (coppernickel alloy) na-eji maka minting mkpụrụ ego. Ọla kọpa-nickel alloys, gụnyere "admiralty", eji na shipbuilding. Of ha mere akpa maka condensers, nhicha tobaim iyuzucha uzuoku. Ọ bụ ihe kwesịrị ịrịba ama na turbines na-mma site mmiri nke oké osimiri. Ọla kọpa-nickel alloys nwere ihe dị ịtụnanya corrosion na-eguzogide, ya mere, ha na-eji na ebe metụtara ike ike mmetụta nke oké osimiri mmiri.

N'eziokwu, ọla kọpa bụ isi akụrụngwa nke siri ike solders - alloys enwe a agbaze n'ókè nke 590 na 880 degrees Celsius. Ọ bụ pụta ụwa ha a oké adhesion ka ọtụtụ ọla, nke mere na ha na-etinye maka na-adịgide adịgide njikọ nke dị iche iche na metal akụkụ. Ndị a nwere ike anwụrụ oyiyi akwa ma ọ bụ ọmụmụ ugboelu engines, mere nke dissimilar ọla.

Ugbu a depụta alloys na nke ọla kọpa ductility dị mkpa. Duralumin ma ọ bụ Duralumin bụ aluminum alloy na ọla kọpa. Ebe a, ọla kọpa bụ 4.4%. Alloys nke ọla kọpa na gold bụ mgbe eji ọla. Ha dị mkpa ka mma na ike nke ngwaahịa. Mgbe niile, dị ọcha gold - a nnọọ nro metal, nke nwere ike ịbụ na-eguzogide ọgwụ ka n'ibu nchegbu. Ngwaahịa mere nke ọla-edo anāgwaghi ngwa ngwa nkwarụ na abraded.

-Akpali mmasị, maka ihe e kere eke nke ihe oxide nke yttrium-barium-ọla kọpa oxides, ọla kọpa e ji mee ihe. Ọ na-eje ozi dị ka ihe ndabere maka mmepụta nke elu-okpomọkụ superconductors. Ọla kọpa na-eji maka mmepụta nke batrị na ọla kọpa-oxide electrochemical mkpụrụ ndụ.

Ndị ọzọ ebe nke ngwa

Ị maara na ọla kọpa na-nnọọ na-eji dị ka a mkpali maka polymerization nke acetylene? N'ihi na nke a onwunwe nke ọla kọpa piping eji maka ebufe acetylene na-ekwe na-emetụta nanị mgbe e ji ọla kọpa ọdịnaya adịghị gafere 64% nke ha.

People mụtara iji malleability nke ọla kọpa na ije. Facades na n'elu ụlọ mere si nnọọ mkpa mpempe akwụkwọ ọla kọpa, na-na-enweghị nsogbu maka afọ 150. Nke a na onu na-adị mfe kọwara, sị: na ọla efere emee avtozatuhanie corrosion usoro. Na Russia, a ọla kọpa mpempe akwụkwọ maka facades na n'elu ụlọ dị na ndokwa nke Federal Usoro nke Regulations SP 31-116-2006.

N'ọdịnihu dị nso ndị mmadụ na-eme atụmatụ iji ọla kọpa ka a microbicidal ebupụta na clinics maka igbochi ije nke bacteria na-ese siga. All na-ebupụta na-emetụ mmadụ aka, - ụzọ ịṅụ, handrails, vodozapornaya fixtures, countertops, akwa - ọkachamara ga-emepụta naanị site na nke a dị ịtụnanya metal.

marking ọla kọpa

Nke ika nke ọla kọpa na-eji ndị mmadụ n'ihi na mmepụta nke dị mkpa na ngwaahịa? Ha dị ọtụtụ: na M00, M0, M1, M2, m3. Ke ofụri ofụri, ika mata ọla kọpa na-adị ọcha nke ọdịnaya.

Dị ka ihe atụ, ọla kọpa akara ule M1r, M2P na M3R nwere 0,04% site na 0.01% oxygen, na akara M1, M2 na m3 - 0.05-0.08% oxygen. Stampụ M0b oxygen anọghị ya, na ya pasent ọdịnaya bụ 0,02% na knife.

N'ihi ya, anyị na-atụle na ihe nkowa ọla kọpa. Isiokwu, igba na, ga-enye ndị ọzọ ihe ọmụma ziri ezi:

Brand ọla kọpa	M00	M0	M0b	M1	M1r	M2	M2P	m3	M3R	M4
percentages ọdịnaya ọla kọpa	99,99	99,95	99,97	99,90	99,70	99,70	99,50	99,50	99,50	99,00

27 akara ule nke ọla kọpa

Na ngụkọta e nwere iri abụọ na asaa akara ule nke ọla kọpa. Ebe kpọmkwem bụ ego nke ọla kọpa ihe eji a onye? Tụlee ihe nke a nuance nju:

• Cu-DPH ihe onwunwe na-eji maka imewe nke oyiyi akwa chọrọ maka njikọ nke ọkpọkọ.
• IGBOB dị mkpa maka ihe e kere eke nke na-ekpo ọkụ-akpọrepu na oyi na-atụ-akpọrepu anodes.
• Amphoux eji maka mmepụta nke oyi-akpọrepu na-ekpo ọkụ-akpọrepu anodes.
• M0 dị mkpa iji mepụta elu-ugbu a na-eduzi na alloys.
• M00 Ihe eji maka imewe nke elu-alloy na ugbu a na-eduzi.
• M001 na-eji maka imewe nke waya, taya na ndị ọzọ ọkụ ngwaahịa.
• M001b mkpa maka amị eletriki ngwaahịa.
• M00b na-eji ike na nke ugbu a na-eduzi nke elu alloys na apparatuses electric agụụ ụlọ ọrụ.
• M00k - feedstock maka ihe e kere eke nke nwere nkwarụ na nkedo billets.
• M0b ji kee alloys na elu ugboro.
• M0k eji maka mmepụta nke nkedo na oruru workpieces.
• M1 mkpa maka imewe nke waya na n'ichepụta nke cryogenic akụrụngwa.
• M16 na-eji maka mmepụta nke electric agụụ ngwaọrụ ụlọ ọrụ.
• M1E kwesịrị ike oyi-akpọrepu foil na teepu.
• M1k mkpa ike a ọkara okokụre ngwaahịa.
• M1or eji maka n'ichepụta wires na ndị ọzọ na ọkụ ngwaahịa.
• M1r eji maka n'ichepụta electrodes eji maka ịgbado ọkụ ígwè na ọla kọpa.
• M1rE mkpa n'ihi na mmepụta nke oyi-akpọrepu warara na foil.
• M1u ji kee oyi-akpọrepu na-ekpo ọkụ-akpọrepu anodes.
• M1f mkpa ike a teepu, foil, na-ekpo ọkụ-akpọrepu na oyi na-atụ-akpọrepu Ibé akwụkwọ.
• M2 na-eji Nlụpụta ọkara okokụre na sturdy alloys dabeere na ọla kọpa.
• M2K eji maka mmepụta nke ọkara okokụre ngwaahịa.
• M2P chọrọ maka n'ichepụta mkpara.
• M3 dị mkpa n'ihi na mmepụta nke akpọrepu alloys.
• M3R iji mee na akpọrepu alloys.
• MB-1 dị oké mkpa maka ihe e kere eke nke beryllium ọla.
• MSr1 eji maka imewe nke eletriki aghụghọ.